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urinary system
consists of two kidneys, two ureters, the urinary bladder, and the urethra
primary function of the urinary system
regulation of the extracellular fluids of the body (primarily plasma and tissue fluid)
urine
passes out of the kidneys via the ureters to the urinary bladder and then excreted out of the body through the urethra
electrolyte
mineral salt (sodium, potassium, or calcium) that carries an electrical charge when in solution
filtrate
fluid that passes from the blood through the capillary walls of the glomeruli into Bowman capsule
nitrogenous waste
product of protein metabolism that include urea, uric acid, creatine, creatinine, and ammonia
peristaltic wave
sequence of rhythmic contraction of smooth muscles of a hollow organ to force material forward and prevent backflow
peritoneum
serous membrane that lines the abdominopelvic cavity and covers most of the organs within the cavity
pH
symbol that expresses the alkalinity or acidity of a solution
pH of 7
neutral solution
plasma
liquid portion of blood that is filtered by the nephrons to remove dissolved wastes
nitrogenous wastes and excess electrolytes
the harmful products excreted by the urinary system
nitrogenous products
are toxic; must be eliminated from the body or death can occur
proper balance of electrolytes
vital for proper functioning of the muscles, heart, and nerves
erythropoietin
a hormone secreted by the kidney that acts on bone marrow to stimulate production of red blood cells when blood oxygen levels are low
macroscopic structures
two kidneys, two ureters, a bladder, and a urethra
kidney
left and right; each about the size of a fist; beanlike in shape; located in the abdominal cavity slightly above the waistline
retroperitoneal
the kidneys lie outside of the peritoneum
renal cortex
the outer area on a kidney seen in the frontal section
renal medulla
the middle area on a kidney seen in the frontal section
nephrons
microscopic filtering units of the kidney in the renal cortex and renal medulla
hilum (hilus)
an opening through which the renal artery enters and the renal vein exits the kidney
renal artery
carries blood that contains waste products to the nephrons for filtering
renal vein
after waste products are removed, blood leaves the kidney in this
process of urine formation
helps maintain the normal composition, volume, and pH of blood and tissue fluid
renal pelvis
a hollow chamber where waste material, urine, passes through; where the ureter merges with the kidney
ureter
a slender tube about 10” or 12” long that carries urine in peristaltic waves to the bladder
ureteral orifice
the place where urine enters the bladder
urinary bladder
an expandable hollow organ; acts as a temporary reservoir for urine
rugae
small folds in the bladder that expand as the bladder fills
trigone
a triangular area at the base of the bladder is delineated by the openings of the ureters and the urethra
urethra
a tube that discharges urine from the bladder; formed by the base of the trigone
urethra length
1.5” in women and about 7” to 8” in men (passes through the prostate gland and the penis)
urination
micturition; urine is expelled from the body through the urinary meatus
urinary meatus
the urethral opening
nephrons
one million in the kidney that adjust and regulate the contents of blood plasma
parts of a nephron
a renal corpuscle and a renal tubule
renal corpuscle
in a nephron; composed of a glomerulus and the Bowman capsule
glomerulus
a tuft of capillaries in the renal corpuscle
Bowman capsule
an enlarged extension of the renal tubule that encapsulates the glomerulus
afferent arteriole
carries blood to the glomerulus
efferent arteriole
carries blood from the glomerulus
peritubular capillaries
a network of capillaries that surround the renal tubule; formed from the efferent arteriole passing behind the renal corpuscle
renal tubule
in a nephron; composed of the proximal convoluted tubule, the loop of Henle, the distal tubule, and the collecting tubule
collecting tubule
transports newly formed urine to the renal pelvis for excretion by the kidneys
nephron’s physiological functions
filtration, reabsorption, and secretion
filtration
occurs in the renal corpuscle, where the plasma is forced from the blood to form filtrate
reabsorption
most of the water and some of the amino acids and electrolytes are returned to the peritubular capillaries and reenter the circulating blood
secretion
the final stage of urine formation where the urine leaves the body with the waste products
albumin/o
albumin, protein
azot/o
nitrogenous compounds
bacteri/o
bacteria
cyst/o or vesic/o
bladder
glomerul/o
glomerulus
kal/i
potassium (an electrolyte)
keton/o
ketone bodies (acids and acetones)
lith/o
stone, calculus
meat/o
opening, meatus
nephr/o or ren/o
kidney
noct/o
night
olig/o
scanty (decreased production)
py/o
pus
pyel/o
renal pelvis
ur/o
urine, urinary tract
ureter/o
ureter
urethr/o
urethra
-genesis
forming, producing, origin
-iasis
abnormal condition by something specific
-uria
urine
dia-
through, across
retro-
backward, behind
causes of urinary system disorders
include congenital anomalies, infectious diseases, trauma, or conditions that secondarily involve the urinary structures
asymptomatic urinary diseases
are first diagnosed when a routine urinalysis identifies abnormalities
urinary disorder symptoms
include changes in urination pattern, output, or dysuria
urology
the branch of medicine concerned with urinary disorders and diseases of the male reproductive system
urologist
the physician who specializes in diagnosis and treatment of genitourinary disorders
nephrology
the branch of medicine concerned specifically with diseases of the kidney, electrolyte imbalance, renal transplantation, and dialysis therapy
nephrologists
physicians who practice in the specialty of nephrology
pyelonephritis
an inflammation of the kidney and renal pelvis; may affect one or both kidneys; treated through antibiotic therapy; also called kidney infection or nephritis
pyelonephritis symptoms
may include dysuria, nephralgia, fatigue, urinary urgency and frequency, chills, fever, nausea, and vomiting
dysuria
painful urination
nephralgia
pain in the kidneys
pyelonephritis urinalysis
usually reveals bacteriuria, pyuria, and hematuria
bacteriuria
bacteria in the urine
pyuria
pus in the urine
hematuria
blood in the urine
glomerulonephritis
an inflammation of the glomerular membrane in the nephrons, causing it to become leaky
inflamed glomerulus
allows red blood cells and protein, which usually remain in the blood, to pass through and enter the tubule
glomerulonephritis urinalysis
reveals hematuria and proteinuria
proteinuria
protein in the urine
glomerulonephritis symptoms
hypertension, edema, and impaired renal function
common cause of glomerular inflammation
a reaction to the toxins given off by pathogenic bacteria, especially streptococci
calculi
stones; commonly form when dissolved urine salts begin to solidify
urolithiasis
stones that form in any part of the urinary tract
nephrolithiasis
stones that form in the kidney
ureterolithiasis
stones that lodge the ureter; cause colic
colic
an intense throbbing pain
extracorporeal shock-wave lithotripsy
calculi are pulverized using shock waves directed at the stones from a machine outside the body
shock waves
concentrated ultrasound waves
percutaneous nephrolithotomy
a surgeon makes a small incision in the skin, and forms an opening in the kidney to take out the stones
ureteroscopic stone removal
no incision required to remove calculi in the ureter; use of a ureterscope through the urethra and bladder to locate and remove stone
acute tubular necrosis
ATN; the tubular portion of the nephron is injured; two types
ischemic ATN
decrease in blood supply to nephron tubules
nephrotoxic ATN
ingestion of toxic chemicals that affect nephron tubules
ATN signs and symptoms
includes oliguria, fluid retention, mental apathy, nausea, vomiting, and hypercalcemia
oliguria
scanty urine production
hypercalcemia
increased blood levels of calcium
bladder cancer
arises from the lining of the bladder; usually found early and treatment is usually effective
transitional cell carcinoma
malignancy of the cells that line the bladder and inside of the ureters and urethra
adenocarcinoma
arise from mucus-secreting glands in the bladder
bladder cancer signs and symptoms
hematuria, frequency, dysuria, and abdominal or back pain
bladder cancer diagnostic tests
include cystoscopy with biopsy of suspicious lesions as well as urine cytology, in which a urine sample is checked for malignant cells
TURBT
a process in which malignant tissue is destroyed with an electric current or high-energy lasers with devices passed through the urethra; transurethral resection of bladder tumor
cystectomy
removal of the bladder
immunotherapy
stimulates the immune system to attack cancer cells
chemotherapy
commonly delivered into the vein (intravenous) or directly into the bladder (intravesical)
radiation therapy
uses teletherapy and brachytherapy
teletherapy
high-energy beams directed at the malignancy from a machine outside of the body
brachytherapy
“seeds” planted within the tumor
anuria
absence of urine production or output
bladder neck obstruction (BNO)
blockage at the base of the bladder that reduces or prevents urine form passing into the urethra
cystocele
Prolapsing or downward displacement of the bladder due to weakening of the supporting tissues between a woman's bladder and vagina
dysuria
painful or difficult urination, commonly described as a "burning sensation" while urinating
end-stage renal disease (ESRD)
any type of kidney disease in which there is little or no remaining kidney function, requiring the patient to undergo dialysis or kidney transplant for survival
enuresis
involuntary discharge of urine; also called incontinence
fistula
abnormal passage from a hollow organ to the surface of from one organ to another
hydronephrosis
abnormal dilation of the renal pelvis and the calyces of one or both kidneys due to pressure from accumulated urine that cannot flow past an obstruction in the urinary tract
interstitial cystitis (IC)
chronic inflammation of the bladder wall that is not caused by bacterial infection and is not responsive to conventional antibiotic therapy; also called painful bladder syndrome
nephrotic syndrome
loss of large amounts of plasma protein, usually albumin, through urine due to an increased permeability of the glomerular membrane
neurogenic bladder
impairment of bladder control due to brain or nerve conduction
polycystic kidney disease (PKD)
inherited disease in which sacs of fluid called cysts develop in the kidneys
urgency
sensation of the need to void immediately
vesicoureteral reflux (VUR)
disorder caused by the failure of urine to pass through the ureters to the bladder, usually due to impairment of the valve between the ureter and bladder or obstruction in the ureter
Wilms tumor
rapidly developing malignant neoplasm of the kidney that usually occurs in children
dialysis
mechanical filtering process used to cleanse the blood of toxic substances, such as nitrogenous wastes, when kidneys fail to function properly
hemodialysis
type of dialysis in which an artificial kidney machine receives waste-filled blood, filters the blood, and returns the dialyzed (clean) blood to the patient's bloodstream
peritoneal dialysis
type of dialysis in which toxic substances are removed from the body by using the peritoneal membrane as the filter by perfusing (flushing) the peritoneal cavity with a warm, sterile chemical solution
kidney transplant
replacement of a diseased kidney with one that is supplied by a compatible donor (usually a family member or a cadaver who has donated the kidney prior to death)
nephropexy
fixation of a floating or mobile kidney
nephrostomy
the passage of a tube through the skin and into the renal pelvis to drain urine to a collecting receptacle outside the body when the ureters are unable to do so
stent placement
placement of a mesh tube inserted into a natural passage of conduit in the body to prevent or counteract a disease-induced, localized flow constriction
ureteral stent placement
insertion of a thin narrow tube into the ureter to prevent or treat obstruction of urine flow from the kidney
urethrotomy
incision of a urethral stricture
electromyography (EMG)
measures the contraction of muscles that control urination using electrodes placed in the rectum and urethra
cystoscopy
Examination of the urinary bladder for evidence of pathology, obtaining biopsies of tumors or other growths, and removal of polyps using a specialized endoscope
blood urea nitrogen (BUN)
determines the amount of nitrogen in blood that comes from urea, a waste product of protein metabolism
culture and sensitivity (C&S)
determines the causative organism of an infection and identifies how the organism responds to various antibiotics
urinalysis (UA)
urine screening test that includes physical observation, chemical tests, and microscopic evaluation
ultrasonography
high-frequency sound waves (ultrasound) are directed at soft tissue and reflected as "echoes" to produce an image on a monitor of an internal body structure; also called ultrasound, sonography, and echo
bladder US
US produces images of the bladder to measure pre- and postvoid residual urine, thus determining bladder volume and, potentially, identifying incomplete bladder emptying
intravenous pyelography (IVP)
imaging of the urinary tract after IV injection of a contrast medium; also called excretory urography (EU)
nuclear scan
technique in which a radioactive material (radiopharmaceutical) called a tracer is introduced into the body (inhaled, ingested, or injected) and a specialized camera (gamma camera) is used to produce images of organs and structures
renal nuclear scan
nuclear scan of the kidneys used to determine their size, shape, and position
voiding cystourethrography (VCUG)
x-ray of the bladder and urethra performed before, during, and after voiding using a contrast medium to enhance imaging
antibiotics
treat bacterial infections of the urinary tract by acting on the bacterial membrane or one of its metabolic processes
antispasmodics
decrease spasms in the urethra and bladder by relaxing the smooth muscles lining their walls, thus allowing normal emptying of the bladder
diuretics
promote and increase the excretion of urine
potassium supplements
replace potassium due to depletion caused by diuretics
ATN
acute tubular necrosis
BNO
bladder neck obstruction
BUN
blood urea nitrogen
C&S
culture and sensitivity
cysto
cystoscopy
EBT
external beam therapy
EMG
electromyogram, electromyography
ESRD
end-stage renal disease
ESWL
extracorporeal shock-wave lithotripsy
EU
excretory urography
IC
interstitial cystitis
IVP
intravenous pyelogram, intravenous pyelography
pH
symbol for degree of acidity or alkalinity
PCNL
percutaneous nephrolithotomy
PKD
polycystic kidney disease
RP
retrograde pyelogram, retrograde pyelography
TURBT
transurethral resection of bladder tumor
UA
urinalysis
US
ultrasound; ultrasonography
UTI
urinary tract infection
VCUG
voiding cystourethrography
VUR
vesicoureteral reflux
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How many words does Memrise teach you? ›When I'm not busy, I tend to average around 45 new words per day on Memrise, spread across four languages. On any given day, I might learn 0-90… but the average is around 45.
Is Memrise good for vocabulary? ›Great Tool For Learning Vocabulary
The Memrise learning framework utilizes a spaced repetition system, which is a classic and proven teaching method used by a handful of other language courses as well.
Medical Terminology is like learning a new language, so we start by figuring out how the roots, prefixes and suffixes fit together, then how to figure out the meanings of words used in everyday medical settings.
Can you become fluent with Memrise? ›It's entertaining and has enough variety of features that you'll want to keep studying with it. Can you become fluent with Memrise? The short answer is no, Memrise won't make you fluent. Since it is not a comprehensive language course, it doesn't teach all necessary skills that will make you fluent in a new language.
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Why Memrise is better than Duolingo? ›For context, the Duolingo lessons do not incorporate any video clips. You essentially just listen to your computer or phone speak words and phrases. On other hand, with Memrise, you get to visually watch and listen to locals speak the target language, which feels a lot more intimate.
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Which one is better duolingo or Memrise? ›Duolingo is better if you want to figure out how to make a sentence, and Memrise is perfect to help you build up your vocabulary or learn any kind of irregularities. Everything depends on what kind of gaps you need to fill. In case you are a complete beginner, then both apps go hand in hand.
Is Babbel better than Memrise? ›Which language app/course is better, Memrise or Babbel? After testing the apps/lessons from both companies, our team thinks Babbel is the more effective language learning program. We like Memrise's program and give it high marks, but Babbel is slightly more well-rounded.
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The main difference between Memrise and Rosetta Stone is lesson format. The Memrise lessons are more diverse and include videos of fluent speakers, whereas the Rosetta Stone lessons rely more on images and take a more immersive approach to learning.
Is learning medical terminology hard? ›For students who are not visual learners or not skilled at drilling thousands of terms into memory, medical terminology courses can be a challenge. Even students who are skilled at memorization may falter if they are only able to retain the subject matter long enough to pass a test.
Which 2 languages have influenced medical terminology the most? ›Like all languages, medical terminology has changed over time. The basis for medical terminology, however, has remained the same. The majority of medical terms are based in the Latin or Greek language.
Does learning a language rewire your brain? ›“Because the language centers in the brain are so flexible, learning a second language can develop new areas of your mind and strengthen your brain's natural ability to focus."
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What happened to Memrise? ›As part of our continued changes and improvements to the Memrise website and mobile experiences, in November 2021 we announced we'd be fully removing access to mems by mid-June 2022. We're now officially scheduling the removal of mems for Monday 5th September 2022.
What is the fastest you can become fluent in a language? ›True language fluency requires consistent effort and time, and while 500 – 1,000 hours may seem like a lot, a typical person could probably invest that level of time over 12 – 18 months, with the right study schedule.
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I think @romzez has the most points (266 million right now) and NormundsDV has the highest streak.
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- Márcio_Th_VSF : 566,381,939.
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You can find Grammar levels in your course's dashboard. To start, simply tap the relevant levels and select "Learn Grammar". You will be shown a grammar rule and a few examples. You will then be asked to complete multiple-choice, tapping and typing tests about the grammar point.
Why isn t Duolingo good? ›Duolingo doesn't work.
And translation (the core of its platform) is already widely known to be an ineffective way to learn a language. Anyone who speaks a foreign language will tell you that you waste time going back and forth between your language and the target language in your mind.
Rosetta Stone
Compared to Duolingo, it's less gamified but presents sounds, words, phrases, sentences, and dialogues in a way that is designed to accelerate the learning process. Compared to Duolingo, the Rosetta Stone feature set is richer.
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Does Memrise use spaced repetition? ›Memrise uses spaced repetition to accelerate language acquisition. Spaced repetition is an evidence-based learning technique that incorporates increasing intervals of time between subsequent review of previously learned material to exploit the psychological spacing effect.
Does anyone learn from Duolingo? ›Research shows that Duolingo is an effective way to learn a language! But the truth is that no single course, app, method, or book can help you reach all your language goals.
Is Duolingo enough to master a language? ›Even with some of the well-developed courses, Duolingo may not be enough to completely teach a language to fluency. As mentioned earlier, Duolingo is great for getting a base in a language—but don't expect to get to advanced fluency on Duolingo alone.
Does Duolingo teach you enough? ›The Duolingo Learning Experience. Duolingo can help you develop a foundation of knowledge for a variety of languages, but it's limited in what it teaches and how much it challenges you. Depending on your goals and prior experience, you'll likely want to strengthen your reading, writing, listening, and speaking skills.
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Has anyone become fluent from Babbel? ›
You will most likely not become fluent with Babbel. It's a solid language app and can give you a strong foundation in your target language, but to achieve fluency, you'll need to use other resources. While it won't help you become fluent, Babbel can help you improve your language skills.
How many people use Memrise? ›The Memrise Story
3 friends. One passion for language learning. Now over 65 million learners in 189 countries.
We estimate that Memrise made $24.5 million revenue in 2021, mostly from its premium subscription service.
Is Memrise better than LingoDeer? ›LingoDeer vs Memrise
Memrise is mainly a flashcard app that teaches you new words and phrases, but it also has more complete language courses. In terms of quality, LingoDeer's courses offer more depth and explanations. Another way LingoDeer is better than Memrise is its pricing.
Can you become fluent with Rosetta Stone? No, you will not become fluent by studying a language with Rosetta Stone. This is especially true if you're studying a less popular language like Japanese, Korean, or Arabic. However, you can learn the basics of a language and start to have simple conversations.
Can you learn more than one language at a time with Memrise? ›On Memrise, you can access and learn as many languages as you want at the same time! To switch between the courses you are currently learning, simply tap the menu icon on the left (on Android), or the course title (on iOS).
What is the easiest language to learn on Rosetta Stone? ›Dutch grammar is incredibly similar to English—if your goal is to learn any language quickly, Dutch is your best bet.
What are the levels of Memrise courses? ›Courses 1 to 3 roughly equate to A1 level (beginners). Courses 4 and 5 equate to A2 level (intermediate). Courses 6 and 7 are at the B1 level (upper-intermediate/advanced).
Which is better Memrise or Duolingo? ›Duolingo is better if you want to figure out how to make a sentence, and Memrise is perfect to help you build up your vocabulary or learn any kind of irregularities. Everything depends on what kind of gaps you need to fill. In case you are a complete beginner, then both apps go hand in hand.
How long does it take the average person to finish a Duolingo course? ›Generally, it takes around 10-15 hours to finish Duolingo's language courses, but if you want to become proficient in the language, there's no one-size-fits-all answer. Even if you devote hours daily to completing Duolingo lessons and activities, it can still take months or even years until you become fluent.
How long does it take to complete a course on Edmentum? ›
With our certified teachers to help students stay on track, students are given 18 weeks to complete a (semester-long) course. However, for those learners taking diplomas, students are given four years from enrolling to achieve the preset requirements and finish their high school graduation program.
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Is Memrise better than Busuu? ›Busuu teaches languages in a more well-rounded manner, covering different language skills such as grammar, listening, speaking, writing, etc. Memrise is more of a supplementary resource that's better suited for learning and reviewing vocabulary rather than learning all aspects of a language.
Which is better Busuu or Memrise? ›Languages Available for you to Learn
Offering 12 language courses, Busuu is here with the courses in more commonly spoken languages. They are Polish, Turkish, Russian, Portuguese, Arabic, Chinese, English, Spanish, and more. Memrise wins when it comes to offering a variety of language courses to its users.